Child Protection

 

Parenting in a Precarious Climate: Indirect and Direct Pathways Linking Climate Change to Child Protection

Peshal Kumar Puri [1]

Introduction

Climate change is increasingly recognized as a profound and systemic crisis with intergenerational implications, imposing substantial threats to societies, communities, and familial units globally (Carvalho, 2024; Cuartas et al., 2025). This pervasive environmental transformation exacerbates existing vulnerabilities and creates novel challenges, particularly for the well-being and protection of children (Giannakopoulos, 2025; Parsons et al., 2024). The cascading effects of climate change manifest not only as direct environmental hazards but also as indirect stressors that compromise the foundational protective systems essential for healthy child development (Oberg et al., 2021). Children, owing to their physiological immaturity, lower risk perception, and limited autonomy compared to adults, represent a particularly susceptible demographic during periods of climate instability (Zhong et al., 2021). Their unique developmental stage renders them more vulnerable to both the immediate physiological impacts of environmental shifts and the protracted psychological distress associated with climate anxiety (Pinho, 2025; Sanson et al., 2019). Beyond these immediate concerns, the disruption of social routines and support networks following extreme weather events places children at heightened risk for various forms of violence, exploitation, and displacement (Bickerstaffe, 2023). Moreover, the long-term educational and economic consequences arising from climate-induced disruptions disproportionately affect disadvantaged children and adolescents, further entrenching cycles of vulnerability (Pereira & Freire, 2021). The subsequent sections of this review will delineate the intricate direct and indirect pathways through which climate change compromises child protection, synthesizing evidence from diverse academic disciplines to highlight critical areas of impact and intervention. This review will delineate the intricate direct and indirect pathways through which climate change compromises child protection, synthesizing evidence from diverse academic disciplines to highlight critical areas of impact and intervention. Specifically, this analysis will explore how climate-induced environmental changes, such as extreme weather events, air pollution, and vector-borne diseases, directly undermine child health and safety (Guihenneuc et al., 2022), while also examining the indirect pathways operating through disrupted social systems, economic instability, and mental health stressors that amplify child protection risks (Cerna-Turoff et al., 2021). This review underscores the urgency of addressing climate change as a core child protection issue, advocating for integrated approaches that safeguard children's rights and well-being in an era of escalating environmental uncertainty.

Indirect Pathways Linking Climate Change to Child Protection

This section will specifically examine the various indirect mechanisms through which climate change exerts detrimental effects on child protection, including but not limited to, economic disruption, displacement, and increased stress on caregivers. These indirect pathways frequently manifest as heightened instances of food insecurity, interruptions to educational access, and the erosion of social support structures, all of which contribute to an environment of instability that can predispose children to various forms of maltreatment and exploitation (Niedzwiedz et al., 2025). For instance, climate change-induced events often lead to forced migration, displacing families and exposing children to increased risks of violence, abuse, and trafficking due to the loss of established protective networks and community support (Bolek et al., 2024; Rubin & Witherspoon, 2021). Furthermore, the economic instability fostered by climate change, including livelihood losses and resource scarcity, can intensify household stress, thereby increasing the propensity for domestic conflict and child maltreatment (Karaliūnienė et al., 2022). Such environmental stressors also contribute to parental mental health deterioration, which can further impede effective parenting and increase the risk of adverse childhood experiences (Thapa et al., 2025). Moreover, the exacerbation of pre-existing health vulnerabilities, such as compromised immune systems due to malnutrition or increased exposure to vector-borne diseases, further burdens families and amplifies the challenges to child welfare (Clemens et al., 2020; Gogoi et al., 2024). The intensification and increased frequency of climatic hazards like heatwaves, storms, drought, and flooding directly impact human health by contributing to food and water insecurity, increased air pollution, and a rise in infectious diseases (Dillarstone et al., 2023).

Direct Pathways Linking Climate Change to Child Protection

This section explores how immediate environmental impacts directly threaten children's physical and psychological well-being, often leading to increased morbidity, mortality, and psychological trauma (Vaghri, 2018). For example, extreme weather events can cause direct physical injuries, while climate-induced disruptions to essential services, such as healthcare and sanitation, can lead to the spread of diseases and malnutrition (Ajanovic et al., 2020; Boshoff, 2018). Additionally, the exacerbation of air pollution from climate-related factors can intensify respiratory illnesses in children (Wright et al., 2024), while shifts in disease vector patterns introduce novel public health challenges. These direct impacts are particularly concerning given children's physiological susceptibility and their inherent reliance on adult protection for survival and development, making them disproportionately vulnerable to climate-related health crises (Lutchmun et al., 2021). For instance, extreme heat can lead to heat exhaustion and neurological damage, while floods and droughts can result in food and water shortages, directly threatening children's nutritional status and increasing their susceptibility to illness (Boshoff & Damtew, 2023). Such climate-induced health burdens disproportionately affect children, who possess less developed thermoregulation systems and immune responses, rendering them more susceptible to both acute and chronic health complications (Amondo et al., 2023; Yohannessen, 2024). This inherent vulnerability is further compounded by their dependence on caregivers, whose capacity to provide protective care may be compromised by the broader socio-economic disruptions instigated by climate change (Campbell et al., 2025; Squires et al., 2024). Newborns and young children, despite their minimal contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, bear a disproportionate burden of climate change-related health outcomes, with an estimated 88% of the global disease burden attributed to this demographic (Meherali et al., 2024). Specifically, increased frequency and intensity of severe weather events, such as heatwaves, floods, droughts, and strong winds, directly compromise human health, with young children being particularly susceptible to associated morbidities and mortalities (Gul & Das, 2023).

This disproportionate impact is a direct consequence of their physiological immaturity, including underdeveloped immune systems and less efficient thermoregulatory mechanisms, which heighten their vulnerability to environmental stressors (Lehmann, 2020; Pacheco, 2020; Proulx et al., 2024). Their greater body surface-to-volume ratio also makes infants and children more prone to dehydration and heat stress, leading to a higher incidence of heat-related deaths during extreme temperature events (Stanberry et al., 2018). Furthermore, heightened exposure to environmental pollutants, such as particulate matter from wildfires and increased ozone levels, can impair lung development and exacerbate respiratory conditions like asthma in pediatric populations (Durrwachter-Erno et al., 2021). Moreover, children's developing organ systems and higher metabolic rates render them more susceptible to the toxic effects of environmental contaminants, exacerbating long-term health risks (Miles et al., 2024). Their behavioral patterns, including increased outdoor activity and closer proximity to the ground, also augment their exposure to various environmental hazards (Ahdoot et al., 2024). Modeling data further suggests that climate change will increase gastrointestinal infections, such as cholera and Salmonella typhi, due to water source contamination from increased soil erosion and sediment run-off, exacerbating health risks for children (Williams et al., 2023). These climate-sensitive disease vectors, coupled with disruptions to public health infrastructure during climate events, directly threaten child survival and well-being, underscoring the urgent need for targeted protective interventions.

Literature Review

Economic Precarity and Household Stress: The Cycle of Maltreatment Risk

Climate change-induced economic disruptions, such as diminished agricultural yields and damage to infrastructure, directly translate into increased financial strain on households, escalating parental stress and subsequently elevating the risk of child maltreatment (Kujabi et al., 2021). This economic precarity can force families into difficult choices, potentially leading to child labor or early marriage in attempts to mitigate financial hardship, thereby compromising children's developmental trajectories and safety. Such stressors exacerbate existing vulnerabilities in marginalized communities, where limited resources and social support systems render families particularly susceptible to economic shocks and increase the potential for child protection concerns (Clayton et al., 2023). The cascading effects of climate-induced economic instability thus create a vicious cycle, where environmental degradation directly undermines household economic stability, thereby increasing the likelihood of adverse childhood experiences (Proulx et al., 2024). These financial burdens, stemming from factors like crop failures or property damage, often intensify parental stress, which is a recognized precursor to an elevated risk of child maltreatment within households (Kankawale & Niedzwiedz, 2023). Moreover, the displacement of populations due to climate-related disasters further disrupts social support networks, exacerbating feelings of isolation and amplifying the psychological burdens on caregivers, which can indirectly contribute to compromised child protection environments (Thapa et al., 2025). This amplification of stress can significantly impair parental capacity for nurturing and supervision, consequently elevating the potential for neglect or abuse (Stanberry et al., 2018).

Displacement and the Erosion of Protective Social Networks

Climate-induced displacement disrupts established community structures, severing familial and social ties that are crucial for child protection and well-being (Ahdoot et al., 2024). The ensuing instability can lead to a loss of informal support systems, increased exposure to hazardous environments, and heightened psychosocial stress for both children and caregivers, thereby increasing vulnerability to exploitation and maltreatment (Clayton et al., 2023; Ronnkvist et al., 2023). Economic downturns associated with such displacement further intensify psychological distress and financial strain, even among employed individuals, potentially leading to harsh parenting behaviors including child maltreatment and nonmaterial neglect (Schenck‐Fontaine et al., 2017). Moreover, the destabilization of community networks often diminishes the capacity for collective child monitoring and intervention, further eroding protective factors within displaced populations.

The Caregiver Burden: Mental Health Deterioration and Parenting Capacity

Climate-related stressors, including direct exposure to extreme weather events and the subsequent economic and social upheaval, can significantly impact caregivers' mental health, contributing to conditions like depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder, which in turn can compromise their capacity for responsive and engaged parenting (Liming, 2018). This deterioration in caregiver mental health can lead to emotionally dysregulated household environments, where children may mirror parental anxieties, thereby straining familial bonds (Ibrahim, 2024). The chronic stress experienced by parents and caregivers following climate disasters can manifest as reduced patience, increased irritability, and even lead to more punitive parenting practices, thus escalating the risk of child maltreatment (Chu et al., 2010). This heightened parental distress, particularly in scenarios involving loss of belongings, displacement, or fear of death, is consistently linked to an increase in child abuse (Patel et al., 2021). Children separated from their caregivers during such events face heightened risks of trauma, mental health burdens, and vulnerability to violence, which can lead to long-term attachment issues (Clayton et al., 2021). Moreover, the forced migration of children due to untenable environmental conditions or climate shocks further disrupts social support systems, thereby intensifying their vulnerability to various forms of exploitation and compromising their long-term developmental trajectories (Huerta-Montañez & Philipsborn, 2024; Torres & Casey, 2017).

Physiological Vulnerability: Morbidity, Mortality, and Climate-Sensitive Diseases

Climate change exacerbates the prevalence of vector-borne diseases and food/water insecurity, directly elevating child morbidity and mortality rates (Cuartas et al., 2025; Williams et al., 2023). Children are particularly susceptible to these health threats due to their developing physiological systems, which render them more vulnerable to severe dehydration, infectious diseases, and malnutrition (Vaghri, 2018). This physiological immaturity also contributes to their heightened susceptibility to adverse mental health outcomes, behavioral challenges, and developmental impairments following exposure to extreme climatic events (Pereira & Freire, 2021; Powell et al., 2025). Specifically, climate-related natural disasters have been observed to diminish children's capacity for learning and mental development, contribute to negative affect and lower emotion regulation, and correlate with increased anxiety behaviors, particularly among vulnerable populations (Bolek et al., 2024; White et al., 2023). Beyond direct physiological impacts, children also exhibit greater sensitivity to environmental hazards due to their continuous exposure and dependence on caregivers, which can result in respiratory diseases, heatstroke, and gastrointestinal illnesses (Ayalon & Roy, 2023). These direct health impacts are further compounded by indirect pathways, such as altered exposure to pathogens and increased vulnerability to disease outbreaks, which disproportionately affect pediatric populations (Henning & Kache, 2025; Sharma & Srikanth, 2021).

Toxic Exposures and Developmental Health: Air Quality and Environmental Contaminants

The degradation of air quality, driven by increased particulate matter from wildfires and industrial emissions, along with heightened exposure to environmental contaminants following floods, poses significant risks to children's developing respiratory and neurological systems. Children's smaller body size and immature physiological defenses make them acutely vulnerable to these toxic exposures, which can result in long-term developmental impairments and an increased incidence of chronic diseases (Rubin & Witherspoon, 2021; Shah, 2023). Their higher respiratory rates and closer proximity to ground-level pollutants further amplify their exposure to harmful substances (Anderko et al., 2019). This vulnerability is further compounded by climate change itself, which leads to increased temperatures and more frequent extreme weather events, intensifying the effects of these environmental hazards on pediatric health (Sheffield & Landrigan, 2010). For instance, rising ambient temperatures have been directly linked to an increased incidence of heat-related illnesses and infectious diseases in children, alongside detrimental impacts on their cognitive performance and exacerbation of pre-existing conditions (Wright et al., 2025). Moreover, not only direct exposure to polluted environments but also the chronic stress associated with the uncertainty surrounding climate change can have long-lasting effects on children's emotional development and resilience (Provenzi et al., 2024).

Disruption of Essential Services: Healthcare, Nutrition, and Sanitation

Climate-induced disruptions to critical infrastructure, including healthcare facilities, food supply chains, and sanitation systems, profoundly impact child well-being by limiting access to essential services (Miles et al., 2024). This disruption can manifest as reduced availability of pediatric care, inadequate access to nutritious food, and compromised water and sanitation infrastructure, all of which disproportionately affect children's health outcomes (Sheffield & Landrigan, 2010). For example, climate change has been shown to result in decreased lung function and increased asthma incidence in children (Squires et al., 2024). Such disruptions lead to heightened rates of infectious diseases and malnutrition, thereby exacerbating the vulnerability of pediatric populations, particularly in regions with already fragile healthcare systems (Ali et al., 2021). These systemic failures can impede routine immunization schedules and critical medical interventions, further endangering child health (Pacheco & Etzel, 2021; Weeda et al., 2024).

Discussion

Synthesizing the Pathways: The Interconnected Nature of Direct and Indirect Climate Impacts on Child Protection

The multifaceted impacts of climate change on children underscore a complex interplay between direct physiological harm and indirect social and economic stressors, creating a compounding effect that elevates child protection concerns (Bearer et al., 2022; Zambrano, 2023). This interconnectedness highlights how climate-induced health challenges, such as increased susceptibility to illness and developmental impairments, often intensify socioeconomic vulnerabilities, such as poverty and displacement, thereby increasing the risk of child maltreatment and exploitation (Durrwachter-Erno et al., 2021; Meherali et al., 2024; Wooldridge & Murthy, 2020). The disproportionate burden on children is further compounded by pre-existing social and economic disparities, making them exceptionally vulnerable to climate-related health crises (Sheffield & Landrigan, 2010). This intricate web of causation necessitates a comprehensive framework for intervention that addresses both immediate health threats and underlying socioeconomic determinants to effectively safeguard child welfare in a precarious climate (Ajanovic et al., 2020; Rashes et al., 2025). Recognizing this intricate web, it becomes evident that effective mitigation and adaptation strategies must simultaneously bolster healthcare infrastructure, ensure food and water security, and address the systemic socioeconomic factors that amplify children's vulnerability (“Health, Wellbeing and the Changing Structure of Communities,” 2023; Weeda et al., 2023). Furthermore, climate change impacts child malnutrition predominantly through indirect pathways, including food insecurity and disruptions in agricultural output, with stunting being a particularly severe outcome (Klapka et al., 2026). The pervasive influence of climate change on child health and well-being necessitates a systematic and comprehensive understanding of the intricate pathways through which these impacts manifest, particularly given that children are frequently the most vulnerable demographic facing the sequelae of climate change (Helldén et al., 2021; Weeda et al., 2023). This vulnerability is amplified by children's lack of agency in environmental control and their heightened susceptibility to climate-related hazards, ranging from direct physical harm to chronic health conditions (Stanberry et al., 2018). Their immature physiological systems and dependence on caregivers render them particularly susceptible to the adverse effects of climate change, including malnutrition and heightened exposure to environmental contaminants (Boshoff & Damtew, 2023; Merwe et al., 2022). Moreover, the socioeconomic context significantly modulates these vulnerabilities, with greater wealth often partially mitigating the negative impacts of climate-related hazards on child health (Dasgupta & Robinson, 2024).

Compounding Vulnerabilities and Evidence Gaps: Who is Most at Risk and What Don't We Know?

Despite the increasing recognition of children's heightened vulnerability to climate change, a notable gap exists in comprehensive, geographically nuanced data and methodologies to fully assess the multifactorial risks across different age ranges and socioeconomic strata (Iliscupidez et al., 2025). This deficiency impedes the development of targeted interventions and policies tailored to specific populations and regions, particularly considering the complex interactions between climate stressors, existing health disparities, and nutritional outcomes (Agostoni et al., 2023; Colozza et al., 2025). Moreover, the existing literature frequently overlooks the specific needs of children within national adaptation plans, with a significant deficit in policies that explicitly prioritize child health in climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies (Ubalde et al., 2025). This gap is particularly pronounced in low- and middle-income countries, where the interplay of climate change and existing health system vulnerabilities exacerbates the burden of malnutrition and infectious diseases among young children (Amondo et al., 2023; Dasgupta & Robinson, 2024). Furthermore, the paucity of granular, climate-related child health metrics in national health surveys and management information systems hinders real-time assessment of climate-linked risks, such as spikes in respiratory illnesses during air pollution events or heat stress-related hospitalizations (Sahni et al., 2025). The limited inclusion of child-specific measures in national adaptation policies further highlights this systemic oversight, indicating insufficient recognition and action regarding children's susceptibility to climate change effects (Ubalde et al., 2025; Zangerl et al., 2024). This oversight results in inadequate resource allocation and a failure to implement preventive measures that could safeguard pediatric populations from the escalating health crises induced by environmental alterations (Campbell et al., 2025; Weeda et al., 2023).

From Evidence to Action: Reframing Climate Policy as Child Protection Policy

Given the disproportionate burden of climate change on children, particularly those under five years of age, integrating child-centric approaches into climate policy is not merely beneficial but essential for upholding children's rights and future well-being (Pacheco, 2020; Rashes et al., 2025). This reframing necessitates a paradigm shift in policy design, moving beyond generalized climate responses to explicitly incorporate child health indicators, neurocognitive endpoints, and age-sensitive targets within national adaptation strategies (Sahni et al., 2025; Ubalde et al., 2025; Zangerl et al., 2024). Such a shift would involve the systematic inclusion of child-specific adaptation measures within health policies, recognizing children's heightened susceptibility to the health impacts of climate change (Zangerl et al., 2024). Despite the evident vulnerability, fewer than half of national climate action plans explicitly mention children or youth, indicating a substantial oversight in policy development (Sahani et al., 2022). This omission is particularly concerning given that health is the most extensively researched domain concerning child well-being in the context of climate change, emphasizing an urgent need for policy alignment with scientific understanding (Mohamed et al., 2025). This highlights a critical lacuna in global and national policy frameworks, as children's unique vulnerabilities and needs are systematically underaddressed in climate financing and adaptation plans (Donger et al., 2024; Sahni et al., 2025). This oversight exacerbates the pre-existing inequities, particularly for children in environmental justice communities who disproportionately bear the brunt of climate change impacts (Durrwachter-Erno et al., 2021). This systemic failure to adequately incorporate child protection within climate policy contravenes international child rights frameworks, necessitating a re-evaluation of current policy approaches to ensure comprehensive and equitable protection for all children (Ali et al., 2021).

 

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[1] Peshal Kumar Puri is a development researcher whose work focuses on impact assessment in the areas of education, child protection, food security, and climate change.